2023 JUPEB Economics Questions & Answers

(1a)
Externalities refer to the unintended consequences of an economic activity that affect parties who are not directly involved in that activity. These consequences can be positive or negative and can impact individuals, businesses, or even society as a whole. Externalities occur when the actions of one economic agent (producer or consumer) affect the welfare of others in a way that is not reflected in market prices.

Positive Externality Example:
A classic example of a positive externality is education. When an individual receives education, not only do they benefit by increasing their own skills and knowledge, but society also benefits from having a more educated workforce and informed citizens. However, the individual doesn’t capture the full social benefit of their education in terms of increased productivity and societal well-being.

Negative Externality Example:
Air pollution from factories is a common negative externality. The factory might produce goods that are sold in the market, but the pollution it generates can harm the health and environment of nearby residents. These residents bear the costs of pollution even though they are not part of the factory’s production process.

(1b)
(i) Externalities: As discussed earlier, externalities lead to a divergence between private and social costs or benefits, causing resources to be overallocated or underallocated.

(ii) Public Goods: Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning that individuals cannot be excluded from using them, and one person’s use does not diminish their availability to others. Because of this, private markets often fail to provide public goods efficiently.

(iii) Asymmetric Information: When one party in a transaction has more information than the other, it can lead to adverse selection (the more informed party exploiting the less informed one) or moral hazard (one party taking risks because they know the other party will bear the consequences).

(iv) Monopoly and Market Power: When a single firm or a small group of firms control a large portion of the market, they can set prices higher than competitive levels, reducing consumer welfare.

(v) Income Inequality: Market outcomes may not distribute resources equitably, leading to unequal access to goods and services.

(1c)
(i) Taxation and Subsidies: To internalize externalities, taxes can be imposed on activities with negative externalities (like pollution), while subsidies can be provided for activities with positive externalities (like education or research).

Regulation: Governments can establish regulations to control harmful activities and ensure that external costs are reduced. For example, emission standards can be imposed on industries to limit pollution.

(ii) Public Provision of Goods: In the case of public goods, where markets fail to provide efficiently, governments can step in to provide these goods directly, funded by taxes.

(iii) Information Disclosure: To mitigate asymmetric information, regulations can require companies to disclose relevant information to consumers. This helps consumers make informed choices and reduces the likelihood of adverse selection.

(iv) Competition Policy: Governments can enforce antitrust laws to prevent monopolies and promote competition, ensuring that markets function more efficiently.

(v) Income Redistribution: To address income inequality, governments can implement policies such as progressive taxation and social welfare programs.

(vii) Education and Awareness: Encouraging education and awareness about the negative externalities of certain behaviors can lead to voluntary changes in individual actions.

(viii) Cap and Trade Systems: For environmental issues like carbon emissions, cap and trade systems can be implemented to limit overall emissions while allowing firms to buy and sell emissions allowances.

(3ai)
Absolute Income Theory of Consumption:
The absolute income theory of consumption suggests that individuals’ consumption patterns are determined by their current level of income. According to this theory, higher income leads to higher consumption, while lower income leads to lower consumption. In other words, the absolute income theory emphasizes that individuals’ decisions to consume are determined by their current financial position.

For example, people with higher incomes are more likely to purchase luxury goods and services than those with lower incomes. People with lower incomes, on the other hand, are more likely to purchase basic necessities such as food and shelter.

(3aii)
Permanent Income Theory of Consumption:
The permanent income theory of consumption suggests that individuals’ consumption patterns are determined by their expected future income level. According to this theory, individuals make consumption decisions based on their perceived income level over the long-term, rather than just their current income level.

For example, a person who expects to have a higher income in the future may choose to save some of their current income, rather than consume all of it. This is because they anticipate that they will be able to enjoy a higher level of consumption in the future when their income is higher.

(3b)
Multiplier in National Income Consumption:
The multiplier effect of national income consumption suggests that an increase in consumer spending can have a larger effect on a country’s economic output than the initial increase in spending. This is because an increase in spending leads to an increase in production, which in turn leads to further increases in spending and production. This chain reaction is known as the multiplier effect.

(4a)
(i) Population Growth: Nigeria has one of the fastest-growing populations in the world. As the population increases, the demand for public goods and services also increases. Therefore, the government has to increase public expenditure in order to meet this demand.
(ii) Rising Fuel Prices: The increasing cost of fuel has forced the government to raise public expenditure in order to cover the costs of transport and other fuel-related costs.
(iii) Infrastructure Development: In recent years, the government has invested heavily in infrastructure projects such as road construction, which requires a large amount of money.
(iv) Debt Financing: The government has resorted to borrowing funds from other countries and international institutions in order to finance certain public projects.

(4b)
(i) Employment: Public expenditure typically leads to job creation by providing wages and salaries for the people employed to carry out the projects.
(ii) Economic Development: The increased spending on infrastructure projects has helped to improve the country’s infrastructure, which in turn has a positive effect on economic growth.
(iii) Inflation: An increase in public expenditure can cause the prices of goods and services to rise, leading to inflation.
(iv) Tax Burden: The rising public expenditure means that the government has to collect more taxes in order to finance the expenditure, which in turn increases the tax burden on individuals and businesses.